A Comparative Analysis Of The Hindu Marriage Act, 1955, And The Special Marriage Act, 1954

Abstract

Marriage is one of the oldest and most significant social institutions in India, deeply rooted in religious and cultural traditions. The diversity of Indian society, however, has often resulted in barriers based on caste and religion, particularly in the sphere of marriage. To address these challenges and provide legal recognition to marriages beyond traditional boundaries, the Parliament enacted the Special Marriage Act, 1954, and the Hindu Marriage Act, 1955.

While the Hindu Marriage Act governs marriages among Hindus and preserves the sacramental nature of the institution, the Special Marriage Act establishes a secular framework enabling inter-caste and inter-faith marriages without requiring conversion or adherence to religious ceremonies.

This research paper undertakes a comparative analysis of both legislations by examining their scope, applicability, essential conditions, and legal requirements. It further analyses the social and legal changes brought about by these enactments and evaluates their role in promoting equality, individual autonomy, and legal protection in matrimonial relationships.

The study concludes that both statutes, despite their distinct objectives, have significantly contributed to the development of Indian family law by balancing traditional values with the constitutional principles of liberty, equality, and secularism.

Research Objectives

The research objectives of this paper are as follows:

• To study the emergence of the Special Marriage Act and its provisions which have led to certain changes in the caste and marriage system.
• To analyse various aspects of the Hindu Marriage Act, such as who are Hindus, the conditions or requirements of the Act, the concept of the degree of prohibited relationship, punishment regarding violation of the Act, etc.
• To understand the comparison of both the Acts in regard to marriage being one of the essential Sanskaras and sacramental in nature.

Introduction

Many crucial elements for a properly solemnised marriage include caste and religion. Because of India’s rigorous caste structure, inter-caste marriage is still frowned upon, and those who marry outside of their caste are shunned by society, which can also lead to honour killings.

Then the subject of what to do about those who intended to marry across caste and religion lines emerged, which the Parliament dutifully addressed by establishing the Special Marriage Act, 1954, and then the Hindu Marriage Act, 1955.

In Hindu law, marriage is considered a sacred Sanskara because it is one of the most important religious ceremonies. It is viewed as a lifelong bond that cannot be easily ended. Traditionally, this relationship is believed to continue beyond the present life and is considered to exist across future births as well.

It is a sacred union, which necessitates the conduct of religious ceremonies. Although things have been reformed, and today, it is a widely held belief that marriage must be a voluntary agreement between both spouses in order to be functional. Hindu marriage has neither remained a sacrament nor turned into a contract, but it has an appearance of both.

Use up and down arrow keys to resize the meta box pane.

The Special Marriage Act is important not only for couples who marry under this law but also for society as a whole. It helps people understand that marriages between individuals of different religions or castes are legally valid and deserve the same respect and recognition as marriages within the same caste or religion.^[1]

Comparative Overview of the Two Marriage Laws

Research Questions

The research questions of this paper are:-

• What is the role of the Hindu Marriage Act, 1955?
• What is the role of the Special Marriage Act, 1954?
• What is the comparison between the two acts?
• What are the changes that occurred post-enactment of both the acts?
• How are the concepts of the Hindu Marriage Act and the Special Marriage Act co-related?

Research Questions Summary

Research Methodology

This study is based on secondary research methodology. The information for the research has been collected from existing sources such as books, academic articles, journals, research papers, reports, and online materials. A significant portion of the data has been obtained from reliable websites, blogs, and other publicly available sources, and all references have been properly cited.

After collecting the information, the data was carefully analysed, organised, and presented in a clear and systematic manner to ensure a better understanding of the subject. The research has been conducted objectively, and every effort has been made to present the information in an unbiased and impartial manner.

Sources of Data

• Books
• Academic articles
• Journals
• Research papers
• Reports
• Online materials
• Reliable websites
• Blogs
• Other publicly available sources

Research Process

Hypothesis

Null Hypothesis (H0)

H0 – The indispensability of the enactment of the special marriage act for all citizens and the essence of the Hindu marriage act for all Hindus is important for the sacrament of marriage.

Alternative Hypothesis (H1)

H1 – The indispensability of the enactment of the special marriage act for all citizens and the essence of the Hindu marriage act for all Hindus is not crucial for the sacrament of marriage.

Hypothesis Summary

Case Analysis: Special Marriage Act, 1954

The Special Marriage Act is a central law in India that allows for the validation and registration of inter-religious and inter-caste marriages. It allows two people to enter into a civil contract to formalise their marriage. Under the Act, no religious rites are required to be performed. The Special Marriage Act provides a legal framework for civil marriages in India. It applies to Indian citizens, including those residing outside the country, without considering their religion or caste. The Act prescribes the procedure for the solemnisation and registration of marriages and enables couples from different religious backgrounds, or those who wish to marry under a secular law, to do so legally.

Purpose and Scope of the Act

Inter-caste and inter-religion marriages are covered by this act. The underlying message is that all religions are equal and that interfaith marriage should not be frowned upon. People are born with caste and religion; they do not choose it, thus it should not be a phenomenon that affects them to suffer for the rest of their lives.

Country as India, thinking separates individuals on this basis. Thus, the Special Marriage Act establishes a legal framework for civil marriages in which the parties are not required to convert to another religion or renounce their existing faith. It enables individuals to marry under a secular law while preserving their religious beliefs and identities.

Hence, the ultimate aim of this act was to make it easier for spouses of different faiths who desire a civil wedding to marry. The purpose of the Act was to establish a uniform legal framework for marriage that is available to all Indian citizens, including those residing outside India, regardless of the religion followed by either party.^[2]

Key Objectives of the Special Marriage Act

• Provide a secular legal framework for marriage.
• Facilitate inter-caste and inter-religious marriages.
• Protect the religious identity of both parties.
• Eliminate the need for religious conversion before marriage.
• Ensure equal legal recognition irrespective of caste or religion.

Application of the Act

The application of the act is the most essential aspect because individuals will be able to see beyond the aperture and use it to fix their problems if they are aware of it. Marriages between Hindus, Muslims, Christians, Sikhs, Jains, and Buddhists are all covered under this act. This statute is enforceable across India. This statute applies to Indians of all castes and religions living in India, as well as Indian nationals living overseas.

Who Can Use the Act?

Requirements of the Act

The Indian people’s faith in marriages is overpowering, with many ceremonies, rites, and lavish festivities, but the Special Marriage Act does not have nearly as many obligations. The act’s most basic prerequisite for a marriage to be valid is that both parties have given their agreement to marry. Under the Special Marriage Act, the mutual consent of both parties is the essential requirement for marriage. Factors such as caste, religion, race, or colour do not create any legal barrier to the marriage.

Under the Special Marriage Act, the parties intending to marry must submit a notice to the Marriage Registrar of the district in which at least one of them has resided for a minimum of thirty days immediately before giving the notice. After the notice is published, any person may object to the proposed marriage. If the objection falls within the grounds specified under the Act, the Registrar is required to conduct an inquiry. The marriage may be solemnised only after the objection has been resolved in accordance with the law and justification; the wedding may be cancelled. The parties must also give their permission to the marriage in front of the marriage officer and three witnesses for it to be valid.^[3]

Essential Requirements for Marriage

• Mutual consent of both parties.
• Submission of notice to the Marriage Registrar.
• At least one party must have resided in the district for thirty days before giving notice.
• Publication of marriage notice.
• Inquiry into objections, if any.
• Marriage to be solemnised after lawful resolution of objections.
• Declaration before the Marriage Officer.
• Presence of three witnesses.

Conditions of the Act

The requirements are no more unusual than those that apply to a normal caste marriage. These are the requirements to be entitled to a marriage and to make that marriage legally binding, as outlined in section 4 of this act.

The law requires that, at the time of marriage, the groom must have completed twenty-one years of age and the bride must have completed eighteen years of age to be legally eligible for marriage.

Both parties must be unmarried at the time of the marriage and should not have a living spouse. In other words, the marriage must be monogamous, and neither party can enter into another marriage while a previous valid marriage is still subsisting.

The parties must be mentally well in order to make their own decisions; in other words, they must be in a sane state before getting married.

They should not be connected to each other by blood; in other words, their current relationship should not fall under the banned relationships, which would otherwise be grounds for dissolution of their marriage.^[4]

Conditions Under Section 4

Legal Effect of Non-Compliance

Under the Special Marriage Act, 1954, any marriage that is solemnised in contravention of these essential conditions is considered null and void. The Act serves as an alternative to the Hindu Marriage Act, 1955, for Hindus, Sikhs, Jains, and Buddhists who choose to marry under a secular legal framework instead of their personal laws. Similarly, Muslims marrying another Muslim may either marry according to their uncodified personal law or choose to solemnise their marriage under the provisions of the Special Marriage Act, 1954.

Quick Overview of the Special Marriage Act

Hindu Marriage Act, 1955

Many contentious issues originating from Hindu marriage and succession had reached a point where codification of marriage law was required. There was a pressing need for Hindu law to be defined and applied to all Hindus. A long-felt desire was for a consistent and comprehensive law that governed all Hindus and “included a sequence of coherent prepositions carefully examined and proclaimed by the authority of the supreme legislative, which was a long-felt desideratum”.

Under the Hindu Marriage Act, 1955, a person may be treated as a Hindu either by birth or through religion. The Act covers individuals who are born into, or have converted or reconverted to, the Hindu, Buddhist, Jain, or Sikh faith. It also applies to a person whose parents are both Hindus, or whose one parent is Hindu and who has been raised as a member of the Hindu religion. [5]

Application of the Act

The Hindu Marriage Act, 1955, applies when both parties to the marriage are Hindus, Buddhists, Jains, or Sikhs, including persons who have converted to any of these religions. The Act governs the registration and validity of marriages that have already been solemnised according to Hindu customs and ceremonies.

Persons Covered Under the Act

Conditions of the Act

Under the Hindu Marriage Act, 1955, a marriage is legally valid only if the parties fulfil the conditions specified in the Act. These conditions are primarily contained in Sections 5 and 7 of the Act. Under Section 5, a valid Hindu marriage can be solemnised only between two Hindus. Therefore, if one of the parties is a Christian, Muslim, or belongs to any other religion, the marriage cannot be solemnised under the provisions of this Act.

A Hindu marriage may be solemnised between any two Hindus if the following conditions are satisfied:

• At the time of the marriage, neither party should have a living spouse.
• Both parties must be mentally competent to give valid consent and should not be suffering from any mental incapacity that prevents them from understanding the nature and responsibilities of marriage.
• Although both parties must be capable of giving valid consent, neither should have a mental disorder of such a nature or severity that makes them unsuitable for marriage or the procreation of children.
• Neither party should have been subject to recurrent episodes of insanity. (The reference to epilepsy has been omitted, as epilepsy is no longer a ground affecting the validity of marriage under the Hindu Marriage Act.)
• At the time of the marriage, the bridegroom must have completed twenty-one years of age, and the bride must have completed eighteen years of age.
• The parties must not be within the prohibited degrees of relationship, except where a valid custom or established usage applicable to both parties permits the marriage.
• Similarly, the parties should not be sapindas (closely related by blood or common ancestry) of each other, unless a recognised custom allows such a marriage. [6]

Summary of Valid Marriage Conditions

Degree of Prohibited Relationship

Persons are said to be covered under the degree of prohibited relationship if the following conditions are fulfilled, and such marriage is considered to be void:

• If one person is the lineal ascendant of the other.
• If one person was the wife or husband of the lineal ascendant of the other.
• If one of them is the brother’s wife, or the father’s or mother’s brother, or the grandfather’s or grandmother’s brother of the other.
• A marriage is not permitted if the parties are closely related, such as a brother and sister, an uncle and niece, an aunt and nephew, or the children of two brothers, two sisters, or a brother and a sister. [7]

Examples of Prohibited Relationships

Legal Consequences of Marriage Within the Prohibited Degree

A marriage solemnised between parties who fall within the degrees of prohibited relationship is considered null and void. Entering into such a marriage may also attract penal consequences under the law. The parties may be punished with simple imprisonment for a term that may extend to one month, or with a fine of up to ₹10,000, or with both.

Solemnisation in Hindu Marriage

The term ‘solemnise’ refers to the act of celebrating a marriage with correct rites and in a standard format. It cannot be claimed that a marriage is solemnised unless it is performed or done with correct rites and in the proper manner.

Section 7 of the Hindu Marriage Act, 1955, deals with the ceremonies required for the solemnisation of a Hindu marriage. It provides that a Hindu marriage may be solemnised in accordance with the customary rites and ceremonies of either party. These ceremonies may vary depending upon the customs, traditions, and beliefs of the parties.

Ceremonies Required for Solemnisation

• A Hindu marriage may be solemnised according to the customary rites and ceremonies of either party.
• The ceremonies differ depending upon the customs, traditions, and beliefs followed by the parties.
• Performance of the essential ceremonies is necessary for a valid Hindu marriage.

Where the customary ceremonies include Saptapadi (the taking of seven steps by the bride and bridegroom together before the sacred fire), the marriage becomes complete and legally binding upon the taking of the seventh step. A valid Hindu marriage requires the performance of the essential ceremonies prescribed by the customs governing the parties. In the absence of such ceremonies, the marriage cannot be regarded as duly solemnised or legally proved.

Role of Saptapadi in Hindu Marriage

Custom and Usage Under the Hindu Marriage Act

Because the rites and customs to be followed are conventional, they must meet all of the requirements for a custom to be legal under Section 3(a) of the Act. The terms ‘custom’ and ‘usage’ refer to a custom that has acquired the force of law among Hindus in a particular local area, tribe, community, group, or family through long, continuous, and uniform observance.

For a practice to be recognised as a valid custom, it must be certain, reasonable, and not opposed to public policy. In the case of a family custom, it must also be shown that the practice has not been discontinued by the family.

It is not necessary for customary rites or ceremonies to be of ancient origin. Section 3(a) of the Hindu Marriage Act, 1955, provides that, for a practice to attain the status of a custom, it must have been observed continuously, uniformly, and for a sufficiently long period of time.

Essential Elements of a Valid Custom

• Long, continuous, and uniform observance.
• Recognition among a local area, tribe, community, group, or family.
• Certainty and reasonableness.
• Not opposed to public policy.
• In the case of a family custom, it must not have been discontinued.

Solemnisation Under the Special Marriage Act

If the essential ceremonies required under Hindu law are not performed or proved, the mere issuance of a marriage certificate under the Special Marriage Act does not make the marriage valid unless it has been solemnised in accordance with the provisions of that Act.

Unlike the Hindu Marriage Act, 1955, the Special Marriage Act does not require any particular religious ceremony for a valid marriage. The parties are free to solemnise their marriage in any manner of their choice, provided it complies with the requirements of the Act.

However, if they choose to perform traditional Hindu ceremonies, including Saptapadi (the seven steps taken jointly by the bride and groom before the sacred fire), the marriage is considered complete when the seventh step is taken. [8]

Comparison: Hindu Marriage Act vs. Special Marriage Act

Persons to Whom the Act Applies

The Act is relevant to three groups of people: Hindus in any of their forms or variations, Buddhists, Jains, or Sikhs, and those who live in the territory covered by the Act who are not Muslim, Christian, Parsi, or Jew by religion.

Persons Excluded from the Act

This Act, however, will not apply to people who have abandoned Hinduism and converted to another religion, as well as those who are descended from Hindu forefathers and have been converted into a new group with their own faith and customs as a result of marriage or children whose either parent is a Hindu but who are not brought up as Hindus.

Sacramental Nature of Hindu Marriage

Marriage is a sacramental Sanskara because it is one of the most important Sanskaras. Marriage’s sacramental nature comprises three aspects.

• It is an everlasting union, which means that once linked, it cannot be undone.
• It is a perpetual union, meaning that it is valid not only in this life but also in future lifetimes.
• It is a sacred union, which necessitates the conduct of religious ceremonies.

Hence, the two crucial acts named the Hindu Marriage Act, 1955, and the Special Marriage Act, 1954, were introduced.

Consent in Hindu Marriage

Earlier in the Hindu Marriage Act, the consent of the parties did not play a significant role in Hindu marriage because it was regarded as a rite. Under contract law, it is said that a contract made by a minor or a person of unsound mind is void.

Furthermore, while Section 12 of the Hindu Marriage Act states that a marriage is voidable if permission is obtained by fraud or force, it does not state that a marriage is voidable if one’s consent is not obtained. [9]

The marriage shall continue to be lawful even if one of the parties can prove the absence of a consenting mind. Though marriage in today’s world is viewed as a contract.

Importance of the Special Marriage Act

The Special Marriage Act reflects the principles of liberty, equality, and individual autonomy by allowing individuals to choose their life partner without discrimination based on caste or religion.

Beyond providing a legal framework for civil marriages, the Act also plays an important role in promoting social acceptance and encouraging equal recognition of inter-caste and inter-faith marriages.

Findings and Suggestions

Findings

The findings of this paper suggest that H0 – The indispensability of the enactment of the Special Marriage Act for all citizens and the essence of the Hindu Marriage Act for all Hindus is important for the sacrament of marriage – is justified.

The Hindu Marriage Act, 1955, applies only to Hindus, Buddhists, Jains, and Sikhs, whereas the Special Marriage Act, 1954, provides a secular framework for marriage and applies to all Indian citizens irrespective of their religion. The Hindu Marriage Act primarily provides for the registration of marriages that have already been solemnised according to Hindu customs and ceremonies and does not permit the solemnisation of marriage by a marriage registrar.

In India, marriages are governed by different personal laws and statutory provisions, including the Hindu Marriage Act, 1955, the Muslim personal law relating to marriage, and the Special Marriage Act, 1954. The registration and regulation of marriages under these laws are essential to safeguard the rights of both spouses. The Special Marriage Act plays a significant role by providing a legal framework for interfaith and inter-caste marriages, ensuring that individuals belonging to different religions can marry while enjoying equal legal protection and recognition.

marriage,For both the Acts, the aim is to secure the sacramental nature of marriage which involves permanent union, holy union, and eternal union of husband and wife.

Key Findings Summary

Suggestions

It is critical to draft legislation that promotes a more equal image of marriage amongst people while simultaneously including safeguards for the most vulnerable members of a marriage.

Legislation should recognise marriage as an equal partnership while also taking into account Indian societal realities such as gender power inequalities and people’s lived experiences in negotiating relationships.

When it comes to partnerships that aren’t based on the male-female binary, the LGBTQ+ community’s perspectives must be taken into account when determining the breadth and boundaries of legal recognition. As a result, legislation should only be implemented after thorough public consultations with all relevant stakeholders, taking into consideration differing perspectives and interests.

Recommendations at a Glance

• Promote legislation that reflects equality within marriage.
• Include safeguards for vulnerable spouses.
• Recognise marriage as an equal partnership.
• Consider India’s social realities, including gender-based inequalities.
• Take into account the perspectives of the LGBTQ+ community.
• Conduct thorough public consultations before introducing legislative reforms.
• Balance differing perspectives and stakeholder interests while framing matrimonial laws.

Conclusion

Marriage occupies a central position in Indian society and continues to be influenced by religious, social, and cultural traditions. The Hindu Marriage Act, 1955, and the Special Marriage Act, 1954, represent two distinct yet complementary legal frameworks governing marriage in India. While the Hindu Marriage Act codifies and regulates marriages among Hindus by preserving the sacramental nature of marriage, the Special Marriage Act provides a secular and civil mechanism for marriage irrespective of religion, caste, or community. Both legislations seek to protect the rights of spouses and ensure legal certainty in marital relationships.

The comparative analysis of these statutes demonstrates the gradual transformation of Indian family law from rigid personal and religious norms towards greater individual autonomy and constitutional values of equality and freedom. The Special Marriage Act has played a significant role in facilitating inter-faith and inter-caste marriages and has contributed to reducing social barriers that historically restricted matrimonial choices. Simultaneously, the Hindu Marriage Act has undergone several reforms to accommodate changing societal needs while retaining the cultural significance attached to Hindu marriages.

In contemporary India, the legal recognition of marriage must strike a balance between tradition and individual choice. The increasing acceptance of diverse forms of relationships and the demand for greater inclusivity necessitate continuous reforms in matrimonial laws. Therefore, both the Hindu Marriage Act and the Special Marriage Act remain indispensable in ensuring that marriage as an institution evolves in accordance with constitutional principles of dignity, equality, and personal liberty, thereby strengthening the framework of family law in a modern democratic society.

Comparative Overview of the Acts

Key Takeaways

• The Hindu Marriage Act and the Special Marriage Act serve distinct yet complementary purposes.
• The Special Marriage Act provides a secular legal framework for marriages across religions and communities.
• The Hindu Marriage Act preserves the sacramental character of Hindu marriages while ensuring legal protection.
• Both statutes strengthen legal certainty and safeguard the rights of spouses.
• Future matrimonial law reforms should balance constitutional values, social realities, equality, and individual liberty.

References

• What Is the Special Marriage Act, All You Need to Know, India Today.
  URL: https://www.indiatoday.in/information/story/what-is-special-marriage-act-all-you-need-to-know-1776395-2021-03-06 (last visited Apr. 5, 2022).
• Section 12 in the Hindu Marriage Act, 1955, Indian Kanoon.
  URL: https://indiankanoon.org/doc/368948/ (last visited Apr. 5, 2022).
• The Hindu Marriage Act – Conditions & Procedures, IndiaFilings.
  URL: https://www.indiafilings.com/learn/the-hindu-marriage-act/ (last visited Apr. 5, 2022).
• The Essential Conditions of a Valid Hindu Marriage under HMA, 1955, Legal Service India.
  URL: https://www.legalserviceindia.com/legal/article-5606-the-essential-conditions-of-a-valid-hindu-marriage-under-hma-1955-.html (last visited Apr. 5, 2022).
• Degrees of Prohibited Relationship: Ss. 3(c), 3(d), 3(g) and S. 5(iv), The Fact Factor.
  URL: https://thefactfactor.com/facts/law/civil_law/family_laws/hindu-laws/degrees-of-prohibited-relationship/2805/ (last visited Apr. 5, 2022).
• Ayush Verma, Nature of Hindu Marriage under the Hindu Law, iPleaders.
  URL: https://blog.ipleaders.in/nature-hindu-marriage-hindu-law/ (last visited Apr. 5, 2022).
• Special Marriage Act, 1954: Objective, Conditions and Procedure, Adda247.
  URL: https://www.adda247.com/upsc-exam/special-marriage-act-1954-objective-conditions-and-procedure/ (last visited Apr. 5, 2022).
• Ritika Joshi, 15 Things You Should Know About India’s Special Marriage Act, SheThePeople TV.
  URL: https://www.shethepeople.tv/law-and-her/about-india-special-marriage-act/ (last visited Apr. 5, 2022).
• How to Register a Marriage Under the Special Marriage Act in India, Vakilsearch.
  URL: https://vakilsearch.com/advice/how-to-apply-for-special-marriage-act-in-india/ (last visited Apr. 5, 2022).
• Difference Between Hindu Marriage Act & Special Marriage Act, PSCNotes.in.
  URL: https://pscnotes.in/difference-between-hindu-marriage-act-special-marriage-act/ (last visited Apr. 5, 2022).
• What Is the Special Marriage Act, All You Need to Know, India Today (Mar. 6, 2021).
  URL: https://www.indiatoday.in/information/story/what-is-special-marriage-act-all-you-need-to-know-1776395-2021-03-06
• Ritika Joshi, 15 Things You Should Know About India’s Special Marriage Act, SheThePeople TV (Feb. 11, 2021).
  URL: https://www.shethepeople.tv/law-and-her/about-india-special-marriage-act/
• How to Register a Marriage Under the Special Marriage Act in India, Vakilsearch.
  URL: https://vakilsearch.com/advice/how-to-apply-for-special-marriage-act-in-india/
• Special Marriage Act, 1954: Objective, Conditions and Procedure, Adda247.
  URL: https://www.adda247.com/upsc-exam/special-marriage-act-1954-objective-conditions-and-procedure/
• Ayush Verma, Nature of Hindu Marriage under the Hindu Law, iPleaders (Mar. 3, 2020).
  URL: https://blog.ipleaders.in/nature-hindu-marriage-hindu-law/
• The Essential Conditions of a Valid Hindu Marriage under HMA, 1955, Legal Service India.
  URL: https://www.legalserviceindia.com/legal/article-5606-the-essential-conditions-of-a-valid-hindu-marriage-under-hma-1955-.htm
• Degrees of Prohibited Relationship: Ss. 3(c), 3(d), 3(g) and S. 5(iv), The Fact Factor (July 14, 2020).
  URL: https://thefactfactor.com/facts/law/civil_law/family_laws/hindu-laws/degrees-of-prohibited-relationship/2805/
• The Hindu Marriage Act – Conditions & Procedures, IndiaFilings.
  URL: https://www.indiafilings.com/learn/the-hindu-marriage-act/
• Section 12 in the Hindu Marriage Act, 1955, Indian Kanoon.
  URL: https://indiankanoon.org/doc/368948/ (last visited July 3, 2026).